The last version of this document was issued in 1991. The version presented here has been updated to reflect the more recent progress that has taken place over the intervening ten years. Three new items (Irrigation, Water Gardens and Fountains, and Direct Solar Power) have been added.
The purpose of the document is to outline the market potential for the manometric pump and the manometric engine. It seeks to identify the various industries and applications that can be approached with confidence. It does not, on the other hand, attempt to qualify market sectors or project revenues that each might produce.
The wide diversity of the market potential emerges quite clearly. On the one hand this offers the prospect of both short and long-term stability. However, developing and maintaining an aggressive leadership in so many sectors bears a high cost in terms of human, material, and financial resources.
No matter how daunting the challenge may be, the rewards will be great. Timing and coordination will be critical, and the success of a venture of this magnitude will depend very much on the combined efforts and contributions of those prepared to apply their talents and expertise at each and every step along the way.
Low Head to High Head Conversion
The energy potential present in water flowing by gravity between two levels is determined by the amount of water falling multiplied by the height through which it falls. To produce the same amount of energy either a small volume of water must fall through a considerable height, or a large volume of water must fall through a correspondingly small height. In either case the product of the two will be the same, i.e. the potential energy available. As the height, or head, decreases, the machine to handle the increasing volume of water becomes larger. In terms of turbine size alone those hydropower sites offering high heads are far more attractive since they would allow the use of smaller machines.
The manometric engine/pump set provides the means for converting a low head/high flow of water into the more desirable high head/low flow. Although the manometric engine/pump set introduces a minor energy loss of its own, and the machine is physically large, these factors are greatly outweighed by the many benefits offered4.
First and foremost, impulse (Pelton) turbines offer a significantly broader operating range under partial loads while maintaining acceptable efficiencies. Other significant advantages associated with impulse turbines include high-speed generators requiring fewer poles, virtual elimination of cavitation problems, and a greater response to load variations. Secondly, the manometric engine/pump set has no moving parts - the entire machine rotates about its axis. This ensures a very long life expectancy and the maintenance required would be very similar to that demanded by penstocks and other static structures normally found at hydropower sites.
The manometric engine/pump set, large as it is, would be located in the fore bay of the site or in a dock near the foot of the dam. In either case space would not be nearly as much at a premium as within the confines of the powerhouse where the hydro turbines would normally be located. This is particularly important when considering the upgrade of an existing low-head hydropower site. In such cases the possibility of achieving the desired upgrade by means of relatively small impulse turbines would offer a distinct advantage over alternative methods currently available.
Finally, the manometric engine/pump set would greatly facilitate the strictest compliance with state and federal environmental requirements.
Fish Passage
The question of fish passage is now becoming an issue of major concern to developers and owners of hydropower sites. The manometric engine offers a very attractive and economically viable alternative to the various existing methods currently available for facilitating passage of anadromous and catadromous fish at hydropower facilities1.
The manometric engine consists of two helices - one the power helix, and the other the compressor helix moving water and air in opposite directions. Usually the purpose of the engine is to extract as much energy as possible, which is done by making the power helix large in relation to the compressor helix. For fish passage applications, however, the only energy required is to rotate the machine. The ratio between power and compressor helices can be varied over a wide range. This fact can be applied to control the flow rate of water through the machine quite independently of the head or the cross-section of the helical conduits. This makes it possible to design machines that allow flow rates perfectly matched to the requirements of different species of fish while providing physical dimensions that can accommodate virtually any size of fish, or entire schools of fish.
Low Head Water Recirculation
This is a novel and perhaps controversial application of benefit to specific hydropower facilities2. Suitable sites are those having operating heads under thirty feet, and the presence of a few feet of head below the tailrace during partial flows. The latter is an essential feature for this system to work.
A simple manometric engine/pump set is installed downstream from the tailrace of the existing hydropower installation, and in a manner that will not interfere with the tailrace during periods of maximum flow. During periods of partial river flow the hydro turbine will normally operate at less than full power, and consequently at less efficiency. However, the manometric engine/pump set utilizes the otherwise wasted head below the tailrace to pump some of the spent water back to the fore bay. This increases flow through the turbine, thus moving the power duration curve substantially to the right, i.e. greater annual revenues are generated without changes to the existing turbine/generator sets. Such a scheme can become economically viable only with the use of a simple and highly efficient machine such as the manometric engine/pump set.
There are those who feel that the proposed system violates fundamental laws of nature, but this is not the case since the manometric engine/pump is exploiting a small head of water that would otherwise be wasted. The success of each installation depends very much on specific site parameters, but increases in annual revenue of as much as 10% can be expected in some cases.
Minimum Release Conversion
There are statutory requirements applicable to most hydropower sites, and mandatory for new hydropower developments, which compel operators to maintain a minimum flow of water over the dams they control. This is generally referred to as "minimum release at dam" or just minimum flow. The exact flow rate that must be maintained is usually determined by various agencies at state and federal level. In the past few years the minimum flow rate mandated for some sites has been increased to levels that actually jeopardize the site's economic viability, while for the remainder it represents a significant reduction in revenues. Not only does the minimum release at dam represent a direct loss to the operator in terms of revenue, but it is enforced most stringently precisely at times of partial river flows which is when generating capacity reaches its lowest. In many cases, however, this energy potential can be recovered by the use of manometric engine/pump sets to convert the minimum release flow into useful work in the form of electric power, service compressed air, or fire protection water supply services1.
Obviously the manometric engine would have to be accepted by environmentalists. Although this might take a little time and effort to achieve, and it would be reasonable to expect a measure of skepticism from those charged with protecting the quality of our natural environment, it is nonetheless an attainable goal.
Rotary Intake Screens
For several years now, rotary intake screens have been in use at hydropower sites and irrigation pumping stations, particularly in the Northwest. Their primary purpose is to provide a self-cleaning means of intake filtration to prevent fish passage. They have additional value at hydropower sites since they prevent juvenile and other small fish from entering turbine machinery. These devices are made to rotate by means of electric motors or other conventional prime movers. The size and appearance of a rotary screen is remarkably similar to that of a manometric engine - a sixteen to twenty foot diameter cylindrical structure floating horizontally in the fore bay.
The application of the manometric engine to power a rotary screen is both simple and obvious. Since the engine has only itself to turn, the anticipated energy loss would be minimal. The prospect of many years of service and non-dependence on sources of electric power make this approach an attractive alternative to the rotary screens currently in use.
Industrial Compressed Air
It has become common to think of hydropower purely in terms of electric power generation. However, industrial quality compressed air is another promising form of energy conversion made possible by the manometric engine/compressor. Compressed air has become a popular energy medium, finding wide application in many manufacturing industries despite its relatively low overall efficiency. It is safe and free from hazards, it can be converted to rotative power using air motors, which are much lighter, and more compact than their electrical counterparts, and it adapts very easily to linear motion. There are a great many industrial applications that make use of compressed air, as demonstrated by the burgeoning air tool industry.
The manometric engine/compressor can provide a reliable and constant source of compressed air directly from waterpower or a heat source3, 5. If direct solar energy were used its cyclical availability could be offset by a dual fuel manometric engine running on solar power during daylight hours, and changing to natural gas or other clean-burning fuel for night-time operation.
One of the most attractive aspects of producing compressed air directly from water power is the significantly higher efficiency attained, compared to conventional methods of energy production and conversion to compressed air. In the latter case there are energy losses in the turbine and the generator that generate the electricity, losses in transmitting the electric power, and there are more losses in the electric motor and compressor that convert the electricity to compressed air. The manometric engine /compressor effectively eliminates many of these losses to give a much higher yield in terms of cubic feet of compressed air per cubic feet of water falling through a given height.
Air Conditioning and Refrigeration
In terms of energy consumption, air conditioning must rank as one of the highest "consumers" of electric power. The use of compressed air as a medium for cooling, and even refrigeration is not new, but the low overall efficiency offered by such systems has made them unattractive. The manometric engine/compressor set can radically alter the situation by providing an efficient and cost-effective means for compressing large volumes of air. The engine/compressor set may be water-powered, or a thermodynamic version of the engine may be designed to run from any low-emission fuel, or even from direct solar energy3, 5.
Areas of application would include the air conditioning of large industrial or commercial areas, and refrigeration for large-scale cold storage.
Compressed Air for Combustion Turbines
Combustion turbines are finding increasing use in the power generation industry for peaking power generation, or for standby service. They can be brought on line in substantially less time than most other power generation equipment of comparable size. However, an inherent shortcoming of gas turbines of all types is that fully two thirds of the total mechanical energy produced is absorbed by its own compressor stage.
A method that is becoming reality is the storage of compressed air for later use by gas turbines. The object of the method is similar to pumped storage, which seeks to utilize off-peak electric power to store energy for use during periods of peak demand. The main difference is the medium used - pumped storage uses water and conventional hydropower machinery, while the compressed air is used for the gas turbine system. A fuel is still essential for the latter but, relieved of the burden of compressing its own air the gas turbine can now deliver approximately three times the energy per pound of fuel.
The manometric engine and the manometric pump can make substantial contributions to gas turbine systems. The manometric engine, in conjunction with the pump, might in certain cases take advantage of waterpower or direct solar energy, thus bringing about a true hybrid power generation capability. Yet another possibility would be to utilize a manometric engine /compressor set to supply air directly to a gas turbine on a continuous "on demand" basis.
Low Pressure Compressed Air
Two major areas have been identified where low-pressure compressed air is used fairly extensively. The air pressure is usually less than two atmospheres. The first of these is the treatment of sewage. A fairly common treatment method involves bubbling air through the liquid. The facility studied used three electric Roots-type blowers. In common with most sewage treatment plants, this particular facility was sited by a river. A former hydropower dam was located approximately one mile upstream. A feasibility study and cost analysis was undertaken to test the economic viability of using a river-driven manometric air compressor. The dam was the subject of a filing for a hydropower license by other parties so could not be considered for direct use. Since the proposed hydropower development was to be "run-of-river", this left only a small usable head of 3.75 feet downstream of the dam, clear of the plot plan for the proposed hydropower development. The study was based on utilizing this head. Despite the limitations and the fact that the compressed air would have to be piped over a distance of more than one mile, the resulting savings in operating costs of the sewage treatment facility would have paid for the entire project within the first three years of operation.
The second area of application involves the use of bubblers for deicing at hydropower facilities in cold regions. However, this has not yet been researched in detail.
Thermodynamic Engine
The preferred thermodynamic cycle for the manometric engine is the Brayton cycle, so named after the American engineer who invented it in 1872. This is essentially an open system in which air is drawn in, compressed, heated, and then allowed to expand to produce useful work. This cycle is also the basis for jet engines and gas turbines. The manometric engine can handle the large quantities of air, which make this cycle technically, and economically feasible3.
The thermal version of the manometric engine could also operate on the closed Rankine cycle, in which a working fluid is alternatively evaporated by the application of heat and condensed by the extraction of heat. The manometric engine is a positive displacement machine and converts the pressure differential between the evaporator and the condenser into rotative motion by the internal displacement of liquid.
The engine is also compatible with the Stirling cycle in which a gas or vapor in a closed system is made to expand and contract by the corresponding application and removal of heat. The working medium does not go through any phase change.
The engine stands unique as a machine capable of high volumetric throughput at a relatively low cost. In view of this the thermal version of the manometric engine would be suited to applications involving the extraction of energy from low thermal gradients, which, by definition, would demand the passing of large volumes of the working fluid in its gaseous state. Energy has been derived from such sources in the past, with moderate success, but in each case it was the kinetic energy present in the flow of the working fluid that was converted to rotative motion by means of a turbine. The manometric engine is a positive displacement machine.
Among the applications utilizing low thermal gradients as an energy source the following deserve to be mentioned:
The end uses for many of the above applications would be irrigation, electric power generation, compressed air, and water desalination. When considering such applications, most of which would be on a large scale, the features of simplicity, low cost, and absence of precision, inherent in the manometric engine, are major advantages.
There is a diverse market for water-powered pumps that can be used for irrigation, replenishment of fire protection ponds, dewatering and drainage of surface water, and even for ornamental waterfalls in landscaping projects6. Drainage can also include the handling of highly corrosive liquids. Since they lack frictional components, manometric pumps built of coated steels would be ideally suited for these harsh environments. There are at present large irrigation schemes in the Sudan which are idle simply because the pumping equipment originally installed has completed its useful life cycle. There are no funds and little local expertise with which to restore the equipment. The manometric engine/pump would make an ideal replacement due to its lower cost and, because of its simplicity and absence of precision components, it would be more maintainable by local resources.
Funding for overseas projects can be made available through World Bank, the US Agency for International Development, and various other similar organizations in other countries. However, vendor selection seems to be somewhat limited. One problem that has emerged is that by the time projects become known they have been clearly defined based on conventional water pumping technology. The challenge here is to gain access to negotiations at the initial design stages so that manometric engine/pump sets can be proposed along with whatever other technology might be appropriate for each particular site.
The domestic market, on the other hand, is more directly accessible but requires market education and development.
Water Desalination
Water desalination by reverse osmosis has been applied successfully, but the method calls for high-pressure pumps and considerable input of energy. The manometric engine/pump, specially designed for the purpose, offers a very efficient alternative. Moreover, the manometric engine would allow the system to be powered by direct solar energy, or by the combustion of biomass, waste products, and low-grade fuels. Single units of 10,000,000 gallons per day (g.p.d.) and greater are entirely feasible. However, safe dispersion of the saline plume discharged back to sea from such large facilities might well pose a challenge far greater than overcoming unit capacity limitations. In many parts of the world potable water is a precious and finite resource. Because of growing demands on available resources this is now becoming the case, even in developed countries such as our own. There is already a substantial market for this type of equipment overseas, and in the not too distant future there will be an expanding domestic market as well.
Fluid Flow Measuring and Metering
The precise volumetric measurement of fluid flow poses some inviting challenges, particularly when high flow rates are involved. The manometric engine, being a positive displacement device, lends itself extremely well to this area of application. A shortcoming of conventional fluid metering systems is that they are unable to maintain the same accuracy over a wide range of flow velocities. Another is the frictional loss associated with many positive displacement type systems, which often create an undesirable level of backpressure on the fluid being measured.
The manometric engine, on the other hand, provides all the benefits of the positive displacement system, with none of the above-mentioned disadvantages. Since the manometric engine has no moving parts that might wear and adversely affect accuracy, it is virtually immune to aging. In those applications where absolute accuracy is essential, or where the fluid flow is extremely low, the liquid seal version of the engine would be an obvious choice. Gas turbine test beds require accurate measurement of fuel flow over a wide range of flow rates. This is but one potential application for the manometric engine that has been identified.
Dynamometer
The manometric pump offers a very interesting alternative as a means for absorbing energy in dynamometer test systems. Traditional methods for absorbing energy include water brakes, turbines, electric generators, eddy current generators, and other similar types of machine. None of these can absorb a constant torque over varying speed, thus necessitating the results to be correlated according to speed and other factors such as temperature. The manometric pump offers a virtually flat torque over varying speed and the results obtained are therefore directly available, and probably more accurate. The manometric pump also offers a much cheaper alternative for measuring the power output from large prime movers.
Chemical Dosing/Mixing
The manometric engine/pump set offers an extremely accurate means for introducing one fluid into a mainstream of another, while maintaining a constant ratio between the two. Any flow variation in the mainstream, which provides the means for driving the unit, automatically varies the flow of injected fluid without the need for additional control systems. The simplicity of the manometric engine/pump, and absence of moving parts, allow these units to be constructed from a wide variety of materials. Highly corrosive fluids can be handled with as much ease as plain water.
Toy for Entertainment or Education
At one time the toy industry was considered a viable possibility for demonstrating and propagating an understanding of the manometric pump. However, when evidence came to light of the successful installation and operation of essentially the same type of pump by the Danish Girl Guide Association at their summer camp in the southern Sudan, the need to demonstrate the pump greatly diminished and the toy project was abandoned. However, this area of application was researched in some detail.
There is a definite potential for a toy in kit form that can be added to for the purpose of expanding its overall functionality. The basic toy would perhaps consist of a simple Wirtz pump rotated by hand. This could then be enhanced by the addition of more sophisticated forms of the manometric pump and manometric engine, but might also include other forms of prime movers such as electric motors, wind turbines, waterwheels, and the like. Accessories would include pipes, aqueducts, towers, holding tanks, etc. An important feature of the set would be the compatibility and interchangeability of the various components and sub-assemblies. A brief and very limited survey conducted amongst local independent toyshop owners' revealed considerable interest. Some major concerns focused on inherent safety, quality and ruggedness, and reasonable pricing (not necessarily cheap, but offering value for money). Somewhat surprisingly, the fact that the toy used water, and was a potential source for mess, was not viewed as a negative point.
A major hurdle proved to be marketing, i.e. achieving market penetration and maintaining a competitive position. The toy industry as a whole is highly competitive and, in some respects, even ruthless. Only the most experienced marketing persons, with proven track records, could be considered to head this project.
The recommendation here is that this market should be approached cautiously and with maximum attention to the selection of the management and marketing teams.
Amateur Constructors and Hobbyists
The construction of small-scale manometric engines and pumps is well within the capabilities of the average handyman with a reasonable level of competency in working wood or sheet metal - two of the more obvious choices of raw material. One way in which this substantial market might be exploited would be to sell customized plans and shop drawings produced by computer from data initially supplied by the purchaser. The one component that might pose a problem, and therefore a minor deterrent, is the rotary joint called for by some of the designs. Perhaps a separate undertaking might be based on the manufacture and supply of these components in various standard sizes.
Irrigation
Irrigation is mentioned briefly under "Low Head Water Pumping" but deserves a more detailed explanation of where and how the manometric pump and engine might be applied. It is perhaps better to start by describing the few irrigation methods where this type of pump is not suitable. These would include most types of high-pressure spray or mist system, and for any form of deep well pumping that would normally use a submerged centrifugal pump. Gravitational systems using channels, canals, and aqueducts are acceptable as well as drip irrigation and hydroponics, which could all benefit from the manometric pump. In the case of drip irrigation systems the manometric pump would probably discharge to a holding or service tank, or some such water storage facility from where the water would flow gravitationally in controlled amounts.
We know of a system involving a 100-mile aqueduct fed from a river. The total energy required to pump the water up to the head of the aqueduct is l7 megawatts. Here is an excellent example of where much, if not all, this energy consumption might be saved by a variety of combinations of manometric engine/pump sets. At the point of abstraction there is a low dam or weir in the river creating a low head. Thus, the means exist to power a hydraulic manometric engine/pump set similar to the ones described for energy recovery and recirculation (see 'Papers and Proposals').
If a hydraulic engine were not feasible for this particular project, it might be possible to install a direct solar powered unit backed up by a combustion system for nighttime operation. The pumps or pumps could also be electric powered and, not necessarily by electric motors, but by resistance heaters - a slightly more efficient use of electricity. Any of the foregoing might be further combined with one or more direct-coupled wind turbines, or perhaps electric power derived from a local dedicated wind farm.
The foregoing serves to illustrate just how flexible the manometric engine and pump really are, in terms of efficient usage of different energy forms.
For smaller applications in the vicinity of a flowing stream or river, a simple paddle-driven manometric pump might provide an ideal solution. Even a small capacity unity rated at just a few gallons per minute (g.p.m.) can deliver a substantial amount of water over a twenty-four hour period. The only constraints are legal in nature since, in many parts of the world, the taking of water from streams and rivers is regulated.
Water Gardens and Fountains
Running water, in the form of a stream or small cataract, is a very desirable feature for many gardeners, even if it were to serve only an aesthetic purpose. However, natural sources of water are not always available, or sometimes exist at levels far below the point where the water might actually be needed. Once again, the manometric pump can often provide a satisfactory solution.
The choice of size, type of pump, and power source would depend very much on the nature of the garden and the whims of the gardener. If a stream existed below the level of the garden, then a stream-powered manometric pump might be considered. This could be paddle driven or, if a higher efficiency were desired, the pump could be coupled to a hydraulic manometric engine.
Assuming that the only source of water was a pond or lake, then a direct solar powered manometric engine/pump set might be considered. This would normally use flat plate solar collectors, but the system might be modified to use PV (photo-voltaic) panels to convert electricity directly from the sun. An efficient use of this energy would be to power electric heaters installed inside the expansion chamber of a manometric engine. Another alternative, and possibly a cheaper one, would be the provision of an electric motor and speed reducer to drive the pump mechanically.
Another attractive garden feature would be a waterfall. This generally requires height and a substantial flow of water. A good arrangement would be to build a rock "mountain" with the water falling over the entrance of a grotto to provide an excellent haven for vegetation requiring a copious and constant supply of air-borne moisture, and a wonderful setting for artificial illumination for nighttime display.
The overall height and flow of water would be limited only by the power available. For best visual effects a flow rate of about 100 g.p.m. or more would be required. If the water were delivered at this flow rate to a height of 12 feet, for example, then at least 1/2 horsepower (HP) in mechanical power would be required. Either increasing the flow rate to 500 g.p.m. or raising the height to 60 ft would increase the power requirement to almost 2 HP.
The motor and pump would be concealed in the hollow base of the mountain, while a suitably sized ornamental pond or water garden located in front of the waterfall would contain most of the water. The water to be recirculated over the waterfall would exit via a channel or submerged conduit leading to the sump in which the manometric pump would float. One or more discharge pipes would run vertically from the pump to the summit of the "mountain", to discharge into a small settling pool. A screen to keep fish from entering the pump would be attached directly to the pump proper and, since the whole assembly rotates, dipping into and out of the water, the screen would be essentially self-cleaning.
Direct Solar Power
The term 'direct solar power' is most often used to distinguish this form of solar energy conversion from that of photovoltaic cells which produce electricity directly from solar radiation.
Most systems designed to convert direct solar energy are based on the Rankine cycle, which calls for relatively high temperatures to evaporate the working fluid. High temperatures are achieved only by the use of concentrating solar collectors or heliostats. Most of these devices require mechanisms for tracking the sun to keep them correctly aimed at the sun throughout the day.
The manometric engine, based on the Brayton cycle, requires only that the working medium be heated, and not that it be evaporated. It is only fair to state that the Organic Rankine cycle, which relies on a Freon medium to be evaporated and condensed, could also operate within temperature ranges similar to those of the manometric engine.
Temperature requirement can be very low and, since the cycle time factor is several magnitudes greater than for other internal combustion engines of comparable power rating, it follows that adequate amounts of solar energy can be captured by low-cost flat plate collectors or saline solar ponds, even though these approaches are less efficient. A proposed 2 megawatt power generation system was designed to use direct solar as a supplement to the primary natural gas energy source. The flat plate solar collector array for the proposed facility, to be located in New England (USA), was sized to capture enough energy for the system to run solely on solar power on sunny days of high insolation.
The thermal gradient was extremely low, ranging from a nominal ambient temperature of 75 degrees F to a hot end of a mere 165 degrees F, and, as stated by the Carnot equation, such a machine would require very large amounts of working medium (air) to pass through it. This is absolutely true, but one of the greatest advantages of the manometric engine, or of the manometric pump, is the ability to handle very large volumetric throughputs in a cost-effective manner. The facility in question would use five manometric engines. This option meant that the engine would be small enough to be factory built and shipped to the site by road. In addition to conferring greater operating flexibility, the approach chosen also reduced, by a significant amount, the environmental impact that might otherwise be experienced in the vicinity of the site.
Bibliography
1Belcher, Alan E., 1995, "Recovery of Revenues Lost to Fish Passage," Proceedings Waterpower '95, American Society of Civil Engineers, New York, Vol. 3, pp 1956-1965.
2Belcher, Alan E., "Increased Profits from Low-head Hydropower Sites", Proceedings Waterpower '97, American Society of Civil Engineers, Atlanta, Georgia, Vol. 2, pp 1029-1037.
3Belcher, Alan E., 1996, "A High-efficiency Energy Conversion System", Proceedings Intersociety Energy Conversion Engineering Conference, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, New Jersey, Vol 2, pp 690 - 694.
4Belcher, Alan E., "The Manometric Engine: Zero Fish Mortality", paper submitted for presentation at the XXVII Congress, International Association for Hydraulic Research, to be held in San Francisco in 1997, hosted by American Society of Civil Engineers. (Paper rejected).
5Belcher, Alan E., "A Fundamentally New Method of Hydraulic Energy Conversion", paper submitted for presentation at the XXVII Congress, International Association for Hydraulic Research, to be held in San Francisco in 1997, hosted by American Society of Civil Engineers. (Paper rejected).
6Ohlemutz, Dr. Rudolf E., "The River-powered Manometric Pump for Remote Locations", paper submitted for presentation at the XXVII Congress, International Association for Hydraulic Research, to be held in San Francisco in 1997, hosted by American Society of Civil Engineers. (Paper rejected).
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Web Page last updated April 30, 2005